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Queyras Queyras limestone and shale (historical and cultural dictionary)

From a geological point of view, the Queyras is made of two kinds of rocks to the east, shales lustrous Piedmont, occupying About two-thirds the size of the valley, and west, limestone and limestone chips, among which extends cervical Izoard (common Arvieux) Col Tronchet (common Ceillac) close strip of gypsum and cargneules. The Queyras in , General William inserts on page 21, a card very clear and easy to understand the geology of Queyras.


This opposition is geologically very important historically and culturally. In the schist belt gloss, there are six common Ristolas, shelter, Needles, Moline, Saint-Veran Chateau-Ville-Vieille, and a part of the common Arvieux, which form the Queyras history - one that merges with the old escarton which corresponds to the Township of needles. In contrast, in the Queyras limestone are Ceillac and the eastern part of the town of Guillestre, which did not participate in the history of Queyras.

Moreover, this dual structure determines two types of geological landscapes, very different from each other. To the east, between Guillestre and the Guardian Angel is the Gorges du Guil, then the Combe du Queyras, dug into the limestone Queyras, made of rock barriers, sheer cliffs, deep gorges. General William, p 20, writes: "When the traveler goes back gorges Guil Guillestre between (...) and the confluence of the River Arvieux, it is difficult to defend against a feeling of oppression, even anxiety, among the gigantic cliffs that dominate both sides and seem ready to crush their mass. In this
Queyras limestone, there are two distinct geographical realities. The first, known as the Gorges du Guil, Guillestre extends to the House of the King, the second, known as the Combe du Guil, will the House of the King in the Guardian Angel.

Further east, landscapes change. The steep cliffs are succeeded by wide valleys, gentle slopes, vast pastures. The geographer Raoul Blanchard, leading expert and author of the Alps a short monograph of Saint-Veran, and explains why: "The shales are soft (...) and they were left largely cut by erosion until to give these broad saddles that contrast with the narrow lanes which are carved the hard rock of Briançon. About Molines valleys and Saint-Veran (between 1900 and 2100 meters), he said: "(...) has retained a real hanging valley, with soft shapes, very different from those of the Guil, Queyras and unique to both his favorite model and its vast dimensions. "

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Mary, full belly, beaming in his humanity, presents the record straight black

Santon Mary pregnant by Daniel Coulomb taken in the snow Christmas 2009. Photo MS

I heard that Protestants and Catholics can discuss endlessly the virginity of Mary, Jesus' mother and wife of Joseph the carpenter. Catholics preach perpetual virginity and in 1563 after the Council of Trent the Church goes so far as to prohibit the representation of such an image. The Protestant celebrate any religion that does this woman refers to the biblical text which portrays Mary as the wife of Joseph and discusses four other children, which implies, without being a great soothsayer, that ... eel has been back in the rock. And Protestant churches reduced to the strictest sobriety, we find no representation of Mary.
But what of Jesus, the son of God, as human as a father Joseph, except by imagining a supernatural process by eliminating the womb of the Blessed Mary.
With playfulness, Daniel Coulomb (Workshop santons in Aubagne) makes a fitting tribute to this woman icon, presenting it in his coat as a mother, which sketched out the work of a biological process that is beyond us eternal - Life.
A big thank you to Carole and Chris Santon picked for the Christmas market in Colmar and that makes me happy!

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The source of the Father Lachaise





My father was increasingly weakened. Ranting and raving on his hospital bed ...


a book ... bought a few fallow years before fell into my Hands: The source black Patrice Van Eersel - a valuable aid to get through the funeral home.

The book tells about how romantic a broad survey on the issue of NDE "Near Death Experiences." Highlighted a phenomenon across the Atlantic there are over thirty years.

The near-death experiences, broken down into five stages - floating, decorporation, tunnel, light, love - affects nearly 2% of survivors of cardiac arrest. Suffice to say that we should all feel very concerned.

Patrice Van Eersel tells the story of NDE by tracing the path taken by each of the researchers involved - sometimes in spite of themselves. Elisabeth Kubler-Ross (The last moments of life), Raymond Moody (Life After Death), Russell Noyes, Michael Sabom (Recollections of death), Stanislav Grof (The man's encounter with death) .. . Physician Thanatonautes paraphrase Bernard Werber who had much inspiration.

Sober, factual and reasoned, black The source book has become the reference on this issue shows once again how life is stranger than fiction.


"In New York, his friends made fun of him when Emile had told them he was on a plane for Poughkeepsie. (1st sentence).



(...) "The hope in man can flourish again on the graves. And the glare of Sunday morning, finally, again, stagger us with joy." (End point)

Photos Marise Sargis : Pere Lachaise Cemetery - November 14, 2009.

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Quarrels school: debate in Queyras (historical and cultural dictionary)


It is not easy to deal with the school, its history or its history, literacy, law school, with detached serenity which is appropriate for the study of these questions. Not that the documents are missing, on the contrary, they are even too many. Since the XIXth, military measured using tests of academic skills recruits. By the mid-nineteenth s, directors of the Department of Public Instruction studied the effects that major laws have had on the literacy of the French. In our universities, dozens of theses are defended each year in which the authors analyze the educational laws, history of education since ancient times, various theories in pedagogy, regulations, programs, instruction departmental, etc..
short, these are not findings that arouse the passions, but interpretations that historians or ideologues do not fail to propose, because anything that affects in any way the school is the subject of ideological speculations . Without pay in a caricature moved, remember that for two centuries and even more, a heated debate, leading to constant controversy, the proponents of two opposing conceptions of the school, who object to each other parallel arguments. For some, religion and the teachings that it broadcasts are only sources of light for others to obscurantism. For some reason one can awaken the decision, for others, she is blind, so it is not based on faith.

Writers Queyrassins who handled the investigation have also participated in this debate, both Father Jacques Gondret that Abbe Pierre Berge. Far be it from me absurd to blame them, since their intention was to refute the derogatory prejudice, widespread among urban dwellers and peasants under which the mountains were merely beings brutalized, stupid and ignorant.
In his excellent monograph of Saint-Veran (1928), Pierre Berge shows, like all authors, that from the XVI th century, families Queyras insisted that their sons or daughters, to receive, during the winter a true statement. Yet this priest educated, intelligent, generous, extolling the benefits of education and awards great merits to those who have studied, expresses his hostility to the laws of 1882 (so-called Jules Ferry laws) that have mandated public education for boys and girls aged 6 to 13 years. It is a paradox only in appearance and his analysis of these laws and the effects they have had in the Queyras deserves mention. His criticism is not on principles but on conditions that the legislature has imposed on future teachers so they have the right to teach, that they hold a certificate of competency issued by the academic authorities. This condition may be justified insofar as it is not unusual for the State, like any employer, requires that pays teachers they have skills attested by a diploma or a certificate of competency. However, according to Pierre Berge, this requirement has serious consequences. Have been excluded from education teachers Queyrassins, trained on the job, experienced, but who were not holders of the patent, and were replaced by young teachers from normal schools from the cities or other valleys of the Alps, and, just appointed in Queyras, had intended to leave as soon as possible. Every autumn, new teachers, even more inexperienced than the previous ones, replaced them. In fact, this was the end of the school community and school system that Queyrassins had invented and which had met for centuries. We understand that Father Berge feels nostalgia for the system he admires. From this he concludes: "The level of education has declined and soon there will not be a man capable of a Mayor" (p 194).
In reality, the successes experienced by schools throughout the twentieth century many Queyrassins partly negate this conclusion a little bitter. And if he could no longer be futures Mayor of competent jurisdiction, the cause of this was due more to the mass emigration to the fact that the regents of the village were replaced by teachers servants.

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meditate on the beauty of the world with Francis Cheng Man

Orthodox Church erected at the entrance of the city of Katapola on the island of Amorgos Greece. MS photo

"The universe is not obliged to be beautiful, but it is beautiful ... "Francis is questioned Cheng Five meditations on beauty published in April 2006 by Albin Michel. His writing touches the delicate mind of the reader with the lightness of the petal of a flower valuable. The words of Francis Cheng tactile sensations .

some time ago with a friend, we had gone to listen to Time's body in Paris, a conference devoted to the poetry of Francis Cheng, a Chinese writer very young expatriate in France and through poetry has linked two worlds, so that the Academy invited him to the join the inner circle of large letters.

The speaker began his presentation by saying with relish: "if by chance you come across a book by Francois Cheng anywhere ... buy it without questions asked, it is pure delight." I found the board very true, I applied as an obvious and shared without restraint.

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Protestantism (Historical Dictionary of Cultural and Queyras)


See Article Neff (Felix)


About Queyrassins Protestantism, some questions remain unanswered, it is possible to exhibit, but it must be easy to decide. Queyras Why did he become a Protestant? The question should be posed to the extent that the factors that led to the Reformation in Europe, namely the wealth of the Church, the corruption of some of the clergy, forgetting the Gospel message, were less widespread than elsewhere in the Queyras.

The development of Protestantism, it seems, was prepared by the Waldensian heretics who spread in the Dauphine and settled in the Piedmont valleys contiguous shelter and Ristolas. The Waldensians who were also called the poor of Lyons were supporters of Peter Valdes or Waldo, hence their name is drawn. As they thought that the laity could administer themselves communities, they refused to obey the clergy. Heretics, they were hunted down. According to Jean Tivollier, archives dating from 1339 attest that "few of the Queyras Waldenses were arrested and confined in the castle of Briançon ( The Queyras, Volume II, p 369).

Queyrassins How have they joined the Reformation? Historians believe that the majority of the population has joined the new religion. In 1660, at Abriès, whose population reached nearly 1800 people, Catholics represented only fifteen families, or about 75 to 100 people (less than 10% of the population). Other villages were Protestants and 80%. Only hamlets Corner, Common Molines, and Shoes, municipality of Château-Queyras, remained in full Catholics and Ceillac, part of 1'Embrunais.

what extent membership in the new cult was it the fact of free will of the people? The question must be asked. Recall that the Protestant troops were superior in number and they occupied the valley. In these circumstances it is easy to put pressure on reluctant and lukewarm. Four centuries after the events, it is impossible to probe the hearts and minds in deciding whether Queyrassins have switched voluntarily or not the Reformation. Became Protestant, the valley has been divided into three parishes Arvieux, Molines and shelter. It is little less than when it is returned Catholic. Was it due to lack of pastors or churches, or the desire to bring the faithful to better control them?

What else does Protestantism? In the eighteenth century, some Protestants, who had not fled abroad or who had not abjured, continued to celebrate their faith clandestinely in the hamlets of the commune of shelter and in the valley and Molines Arvieux . Like other Protestants of the kingdom, they practiced what is called the cult of the desert in a clearing in a meadow or withdrawn. Two years before the Revolution, in 1787, freedom of worship was restored, a Reformed congregation was reconstituted in Arvieux, with annexes in Saint-Veran and Fontgillarde. But in the valley of the Guil, to Ristolas, shelter, Needles, Old Town, it seems clear that Protestantism who was triumphant for over a century has disappeared. In every valley of Queyras, were erected everywhere small religious buildings, often very moving, such as crosses, shrines, chapels, which are the visible signs of Catholicism victorious. The question that arises is: the innumerable small buildings are they signs of a true faith, free and serene? Or do they result from the willingness of authorities to strengthen, making it visible, a hesitant faith and erase any trace of deviation, whether Protestant or revolutionary?

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Prosperity on (historical and cultural dictionary)

Prosperity (relative)

All Queyrassins elderly now enjoy the same standard of living, mutatis mutandis, as other French remember the difficult times of their youth and of those, harder still, as their ancestors have experiences, they talk about frugal meal what they were sentenced each day, many of bread, soup in the morning and evening milk soup, apples potatoes and bacon, the same clothes they wore long; shoes they were shod to wear through the sole, the little money they earned, food shortages, etc..
past century and a half, those who write about the Queyras insist on poverty or the misery of the peasants of these mountain valleys. Based on what they read in old chronicles, including the famous transitons Molines, Pierre-Grosse, Fontgillarde, or signatures Prosecutors Arvieux, they sometimes reduce the life of these high valleys to the long list disasters of all kinds who beat, with epidemics plague, floods, weather, wolves, fires, avalanches, frosts and famines, plus the wars and their consequences, destruction of property, dead men, the presence of enemy troops or allies that had to be fed, thus giving the impression that Queyras had fallen to the lot only misfortune. General A. William has even subtitled his admirable book The Queyras "splendor and agony of high Alpine valley, splendours returning to the landscape, the ordeal for the inhabitants.
This is not to dispute these facts. Obviously, the agro-pastoral economy, which served for centuries the basis for the Queyras, suffered a deep crisis, which still continues today, so that this economy survives on public aid and the country has become bankrupt if this economy had not been replaced by tourism, a kind of vast mountainous desert. Yet it would be a mistake to project in a relatively distant past - say, the fourteenth to the eighteenth century - an economic crisis that characterized the nineteenth and twentieth century The past is not necessarily a reflection of our present or the distant past than the recent past. The crisis of the agro-pastoral economy, following which the Queyrassins became poorer and have had their standard of living deteriorate, erupted in the years 1830-1850 and was manifested by a decrease in the price of cheese, butter, calves and lambs, the sale produced the main farmers' income breeders Queyras.
It has not always been so. Indeed, an objective analysis suggests that for several centuries until the beginning of the XIXth, Queyras's economy was relatively prosperous (relatively, that is to say relative to other regions Farm South of France) and the Queyrassins enjoyed a relatively high standard of living. Many facts testify to this. There is talk among Top authors Charter of Liberties, granted by the Ruler of the Dauphiné (the Dauphin Humbert II) in 1343 to residents of the five escartons Brianconnais. It was not by greatness of spirit that the Dauphin granted these freedoms, but well understood by financial interest and because, as a result of the many wars that had opposed the Kingdom of Savoy, being short of money, bankruptcy threatened his state. If Queyrassins paid the charter is clear that they were able to ensure their daily survival and could spend the rest of their income to buy these freedoms, which assured them of new revenue and allowed them considering large investments, especially using water from streams to dig canals to irrigate and run the mills.
Looking at marriage contracts and wills of a strict economic point of view, as did a very enlightening Ms. Rosenberg, it is no doubt that Queyrassins, without rolling on gold property course, derived from their activities income which were not negligible. In the eighteenth century, Abriès account daily, that is to say, agricultural workers paid by the day. Throughout the South of France, the legacy of these tools consists of daily (false, rakes, shovels, sickles, hammers, knives, etc.).. It is different in Queyras, where day laborers are not a rural underclass. They married, and acquire property; they write wills. In 1748, one of them, shelter, bequeathed to each of his children, boys and girls, and his grandchildren amounts ranging from 9 to 80 pounds (80 pounds since then the annual salary of a schoolmaster). It is a large estate, which, no doubt, is less than that of peasant proprietors - which explains, among other reasons that so many notaries have been able to maintain a study into the smallest village in the Queyras (There was one in two to Ristolas and shelter) - and important point: at a time, until the Revolution, the birthright governing succession, all children of a deceased person, regardless either sex were entitled to a share of the inheritance. The engineers of the royal armies, and the Blottière Ricord, who have long resided in the high valleys in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century, were surprised to find that Queyrassins enjoyed relative prosperity. Harriet Rosenberg's often quoted in A Negotiated World.
Finally, as the last indicator relative prosperity, we must include instruction early and massive Queyrassins men and women, from the XVI th century (and perhaps before). This is an exceptional situation in southern France, and often even better than in rich and prosperous cities of the Paris basin.
course, this was relative prosperity. In other words, it is real only if it is compared to the situation in other rural areas. Living conditions in the Queyras were long (up to early nineteenth s) less bad than elsewhere in southern and western France - which explains, among other causes of population growth. In all campaigns ancien regime, the rule was the rent or sharecropping or wage labor. Farmers cultivating land that does not belong to them. They lived in hovels in which they did not own. Livestock they raised was the herd of another. In Queyras, it was different. Almost all residents were homeowners, which explains, among other factors, the phenomenon of permanent emigration was rare before 1830. They owned land, their homes, their tools and livestock, sheep and cattle, mule. Forests, meadows, steep slopes formed the commons that people managed themselves. Furnaces and mills were public goods. All this represented a capital which has a value and generated income.

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Minutes between communities (Historical Dictionary of Cultural and Queyras)

In his book A Negotiated World , Harriet Rosenberg, who studied the social and economic history of sheltered for three centuries, the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, highlights a trait that has long characterized public life in the Queyras and, she says, helps to define attitudes Queyrassins. This feature appears in the adjective Negotiated that translates as "compromise." In their history, Queyrassins have shown a penchant for negotiation not only in business affairs, but also to resolve disputes between families or to govern collective issues. Early literacy skills, they were very attached to the written law. The charter they signed in 1343 with the Dauphin and through which they negotiated by paying large civil liberties on a scale unknown elsewhere (see the articles "charters of freedom" and "charter of 1343) , certify that.

In the chapter "an incredible degree of vanity: institutions, politics and power," Ms. Rosenberg cites military engineers of Vauban or stewards of the kingdom, all of which in written reports or letters, attest to the fierce desire of Queyrassins to assert their rights, even indicating a public spirit that defines them as a "republic" almost independently.
However, if disputes have pitted seven communities in the administration of the kingdom or communities of Embrun (well, about the many bridges destroyed by floods Combe: who should have the burden of the remake? In "owners" Guillestre Queyrassins or users?), disputes have also opposed the communities, and that about the rights of each, Boundaries, grazing or affouage. One of the most common causes of conflict was the forest, about which communities would not hesitate to sue against each other long and costly trial, either because the negotiations could not lead to "compromise" or because the institutions of the escarton were unsuitable for resolving these conflicts, either because the interests involved were so strong that no compromise was possible. These facts show the boundaries of the wonderful view of Mrs. Rosenberg. The compromise, which she Queyras think he characterized the old regime, paused at the foot of the cliff of interest, only series of trials could reconcile in part.
The archives are full of Queyras minutes of these proceedings.

Historians - and especially Jean Claude Tivollier Isnel - have noted and quoted, without linking them with social structures and cultural attitudes. Let us recall a few. The
near Pra-Patris Riou and Forest Green are on the territory of the municipality of Ceillac at the municipal boundary of Guillestre Molines and Chateau-Ville-Vieille. The inhabitants of Molines were allowed to graze their livestock and cut wood. Ceillac, then, was not part of escarton Queyras, but depended Embrun. As the population grew steadily and missing land, countless conflicts involving livestock and property seized, erupted and lengthy trials have pitted the two communities of the fourteenth to the late eighteenth century. The forest of
Fusina, which is downstream of the Guardian Angel, which occupies the southern part of the common Arvieux, was "albergée" (as the word used in the contracts established in the late Middle Ages , that is to say, in French modern, "licensed") to the "community" of Saint-Veran (whose territory was - and still is - almost devoid of forests), who obtained the enjoyment in perpetuity. The residents of Chateau-Queyras, the village closest to the forest, felt robbed, challenged this "abergeage" and engaged in protracted trials so that their rights are restored to the forest.
Marassan Forest, one of the finest and oldest Queyras Ubacs covers the left bank of the Guil, between Shelter and Needles. It extends over the territories of the two municipalities, even if it occupies more hectares Abriès to Needles. For centuries the two communities came into conflict over the demarcation of their respective fields. The stakes were high. Which of the two communities were returning the timber, a source of significant revenues, and pasture in the forest? The first trial took place in 1387 and the last in 1834. The awards, which confirmed the rights of hands on part of the forest, were challenged by shelter, which gave rise to a new trial.

These facts are proved very important to understand what was and what he Queyras is still perhaps. First, although the folklorists of the late nineteenth century and first half of the twentieth have insisted on the abundant wealth of oral traditions, the Queyras is also a rural valley culture and written traditions, the two traditions oral and written, does not necessarily mutually exclusive. Secondly, these traditions are not only written literature or in connection with the early education and are also - and above - legal and had a duty to ensure the sustainability of the higher interests of the communities. Finally, we must keep idyllic visions of former escarton we can read here and there in the writings of local historians. Violent conflicts of interest between the communities have. This has resulted in strengthening the peculiarities of each, which allows, among other factors, to explain the persistent mistrust that characterizes relations sometimes necessary relationship between the Commons today. Solidarity between the communities was not as strong, serene and strong than is said and written here or there, so that when the negotiation fails, the disputes were brought before the justice of Dauphiné: that is, ultimately, that of the centralized state.

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80 - The Conquest of Tunis by the Turks (Part 8)

In 1573, Don Juan Ostrich the glorious victor of Lepanto, skillfully took advantage of the momentary inaction Fleet Euldj Ali to leave the anchorage in the first days of October and sail to Tunis, with 138 warships, 27.500 men on the landing.
Favored by time, the Spaniards landed at La Goulette without encountering enemies and marched against Tunis under the protection of the fort. The few Turks who were guarding the city, with Ramdhane Pasha, do not even attempt a useless resistance. They retired in Kairouan, where Chabbïa collect, while the Spaniards took possession of Tunis.

Philip II had authorized the Tunis expedition in ordering his brother to destroy all its natural fortifications, including Fort La Goulette, raised to such expense. The ideas then for the city were to destroy all the retrenchments can serve the Turks on the coast, so as to expose them, without resistance possible attacks by natives of the interior. But Don Juan had dreamed as a sort of African royalty to which he was the holder and, instead of executing the instructions of the King of Spain, he set about consolidating his conquest.
This project was accredited by the pope. He flattered his ideas of proselytism and he saw also a way to Italy as well as Spain to shelter from the ravages of privateers that people there wore constantly.

Moulay Hamed, who had returned with Don Juan, who claimed to have caused the intervention in Spain refused to accept the conditions imposed upon him by the prince. Don Juan brought back to Palermo, his brother Moulay Mohamed, more accommodating than he, and was proclaimed king.
Moulay Hamed retired and died in Sicily at Palermo, from where his body was later taken to Tunis is buried in Zaouia (Mausoleum) of Sidi Kacem Zillidji.

Don Juan gave the command of an officer experienced in Tunis, the Earl of Serbelloni (Cerballon), with the task of building a vast fortress between the lake and city. He left 4,000 men of English troops and almost as many Italians who were constantly occupied with the construction of the fortress, even working on Sundays, with a papal brief authorizing them.
The fort of La Goulette, well armed and supplied, was left under the command of Porto Carrero. It was only after having made such arrangements that Don Juan decided to carry out urgent orders Philip II, leaving his conquest.

Tunisians had evacuated the city at the approach of Christians and retired at Djebel Ressas; they returned gradually, but their homes were devastated, and even were still occupied by Christians, and they had to undergo their contact, especially in the neighborhood of Bab al-Jazeera, while Bab Souika kept his Muslim appearance.

Fortress Bab Bhar rose rapidly, and Moulay Mohamed, the last of Hafsids, faithful to the terms he had accepted all its forces helped the Earl of Serbelloni in sharing with him the power he sits by his side when he dispensed justice, dictated his judgments, imposed his ideas, he intimated to his orders.
However, the inhabitants of Tunis had much to suffer in their customs and their religion in the new order of things introduced by the English occupation. They saw their captors get involved in all acts of their lives they experienced in their quivering bold familiarity with their daughters or wives, indignant at their irreverence against ministers of the Muslim faith and their lack of respect Sites devoted to his practice. Finally, the impact of incessant bells was made permanent as an insult to their faith more fervently. Also, the ravages of some and the extreme susceptibility of other conversed often unpleasant struggles between Spaniards and native inhabitants.

As for the Turkish garrison, forced to leave Tunis the approach of Don Juan, she had retired to Kairouan, which commanded a Turkish Pasha named Haider. She stayed as long as lasted the reign of Moulay Mohamed.

The recovery of Tunis by the victor of Lepanto had taken to Constantinople a little stir and it was unfortunate that had lost the Captain Pacha, for that fact, his position and his life. He had at any price, to avenge the surprise and no one is spared.
The pasha of Algiers and Tripoli gathered all their forces, while preparations were in the East a formidable expedition in giving appointments for the month of July 1575 before Tunis. The English Don Juan had left there, accused of these terms, do not waste their time, but they were not in sufficient number, however, had nothing to expect from Philip II, irritated at the highest point of an occupation made in spite of himself.

From the first days of summer, the pasha of Tripoli led a contingent of 4,000 men he adjoined to the Turks of Kairouan, under the command of Kaid Hyder (or Kheder) and goums this region, forming a staff of nearly 5,000 riders, and then reached the quota of Constantine and Bona, 2000 men strong. All, then, marched on Tunis to block the city to the south, but the lack of resources to survive the rally soon forced to retreat to the mountain.

An expedition under the command of Sinan Pasha left Constantinople in July 1575 and consisted of two hundred galleys, eighteen Maouna and other buildings, large and small, in all, fifteen hundred sail. Three weeks later, the Turkish fleet appeared in the East roads; it was not long address near Cape Carthage, and landed there without difficulties, its troops and equipment.
Sinan Pasha commanded the expedition, and Euldj Ali fleet shortly afterwards, the Caliph of Algiers, Arab-Ahmed, arrived by sea with a large body of troops.

The Spaniards had organized the defense as follows: P. Porto Carrero commanded the fort of La Goulette, with four companies of English troops and five Italians whose quota has been in Bizerte. The fort and the island Chekler were entrusted to Don J. of Zamoguerra.
Finally, 2,000 men, Spaniards and Italians, were in the fortress of Bab Bhar, under the command of Serbelloni the rest was distributed in the city and the outposts. The sick and all the useless mouths had been rigorously returned first.

Moulay Mohamed stood within reach, waiting for quotas of auxiliaries that do not seem very determined to come.

Immediately after landing, Sinan Pasha, having been in contact with the kingpin Hyder, Kairouan, Tunis instructed him to attack by the suburbs, which he did at the head of 4,000 Turks and already on 17 juilet, the Spaniards were forced to evacuate all positions advanced to retreat into the fortress.
This retreat was effected in good order. Meanwhile, the pasha of Algiers attacked the fort of La Goulette, near Carthage, and on 17, the trench was open.
On 21, he also began firing from the shore of Rades. Soon the walls were found badly damaged and the besiegers came to the foot of the ramparts, which pushed to seek reinforcements Carrero commander in chief (August 1). But
Serbelloni himself had much to do to repair the breaches and repel the enemy with relentless outputs whose number went up seven in the same day. However he could, in Fort Chekler bald, and with the help of volunteers, send some reinforcements to La Goulette. The assailants then wanted to prevent communication between these three forts by the pond and to that end, approached it by means of an earthwork and threw it flat-bottomed boats. However

Turkish troops were still arriving in Algiers, together with auxiliary Arab attacks against the fortress of Bab Bhar redoubled energy. At the same time, Serbelloni received a new request for reinforcements Carrero, more pressing than the first because it seemed a glimpse of a complete discouragement. The situation was very serious, however, the governor, who had offered to go himself to take command of La Goulette, managed to send the world into his own bald walls. It was time for the next day 20, the Turks fought a furious assault which was repulsed by Carrero, but at the cost of very serious losses. The
22, they began again, and on 23, became masters of the fort of La Goulette. Almost the entire garrison was massacred, with the exception of two or three hundred men, including Carrero, enslaved. The attackers could then see all their efforts against city.

Serbelloni possessed little more than 1,200 soldiers valid, and ls men Euldj Ali had established his camp in the city and opened against the fortress, the powerful gun fire, while pushing up the dug under walls and crowning their trenches good marksmen who fired at a short distance seemed anyone.
Forced to stand up to so many different attacks, the English were losing every day some forty men, nevertheless, did not weaken their courage, because we expected at all hours of relief claimed urge the King of Sicily.

On 6 September, the Turks attempted a general attack and the mine blew up a stronghold, which fell into the same fate in leading Christians and Muslims. After a struggle during that morning, the Turks retreated around noon, leaving many dead and even their scales. The

8, the same acts were repeated, and the Spaniards remained masters, but each of these two days had cost them 150 men and only he remained in the fort 600 fighters, the walls no longer existed and the Christians were forced to run from one place to another, depending on whether the points were more or less threatened. However the 11, a general attack was further delayed.

the 13th the besiegers, having made a new mine, rushed to the assault, but Serbelloni, the head of some English and Italian troops, drove them back. Suddenly, they cry that the Turks enter through another hole, where he runs nearly one and was taken prisoner.
This time the fort was taken and read defense was absolutely exhausted every means in his power. It is likely that if Carrero had deployed an energy equal to that of Serbelloni, La Goulette, whose fortifications were far more serious than the Bab Bhar, would not have so readily succumbed.
Zamoguerra, who still held the fort of Saint-Jacques (Chekler), with fifty soldiers, then decided to surrender and was sent East with Serbelloni.

The Turks were very definitely masters of Tunis, but at what cost them victory had it been purchased: But when the news of this success came in the East and we saw many land the guns, material and substantial captive Turks, including the Moulay Mohamed Hafsid Serbelloni and the governor, the metropolis of the East resounded with enthusiastic cheers and we forgot the past losses and current losses.

the midst of this disaster, Count Serbelloni was spared. The winners were hoping a very large ransom, and it is this consideration, no doubt, who carried them to let him live.
The court of Rome was the first to claim it. She offered to exchange it against several Muslim prisoners in the castle of St. Angelo, and among whom was the son of Ali Pasha, captured at the Battle of Lepanto.
the report of a Tunisian historian, Haj Hossein Khodja, the losses sustained by the Spaniards, in those cases, did not exceed those of many of their opponents. We counted each side about ten thousand deaths. The figure differs greatly from that adopted by English historians. According to them, the Turks had lost 32,000 men.

Spain, preoccupied with his empire of America, do not try to avenge this terrible failure. His fleet did well, from time to time, a few appearances on the coasts of Tunisia, they burned some villages, also sank, sometimes wretched ships, but these attacks did not prevent the Turks insignificant to enjoy in peace their conquest.

END.

Why You Have To Use A Baking Tray

79 - The Conquest of Tunis by the Turks (part 7)

In 1551, Charles V decided to an end to the depredations of the pirate, who had managed to create some sort of royalty on the sea coast of Tunisia. An important expedition was sent to that effect against the town of Mahdia, under the command of Don Juan de Vega, Viceroy of Sicily, who took with him the unfortunate Moulay Hassan, whom he intended to use influence to ensure the success Company. At the news of the landing of the Spaniards, Dargouth, who was currently in the sea, returned in haste to oppose the attackers, but was forced to take off and abandon the defense of the city only courage its inhabitants.
September 10, 1551, after a terrible assault, the place capitulated. Twelve hundred Muslims were killed during the siege, and nine thousand were enslaved.

After leaving his son, Don Alvar, as governor of Mahdia, with 1500 good troops and large supplies, Don Juan de Vega, returned with his fleet to Sicily.
Don Alvar did not remain long in possession of the government of that place, having missed him the money to pay the troops of the garrison, they revolted and gave their leader a certain Antonio Aponte, who arrived at the happy with a few raids, carried out over the surrounding tribes, to live until his men or the Viceroy of Sicily had them return to obedience.
In 1553, Charles V decided to abandon Mahdia, whose occupation seemed too expensive. He charged to Don Fernando Acuna to destroy all the fortifications and the garrison back in Spain.

In 1560, Philip II conceived the design to capture Tripoli. To this end, he confided to Don Duan 14.000 soldiers de la Cerda, Duke of Medina Coeli, Viceroy of Sicily, and deferred to his zeal and his experience with the task of directing operations (1560).
La Cerda embarked his troops on 113 ships, and headed for the island of Djerba, which went first summons. It was a happy beginning, but that he bore fruit, we had to march without delay to Tripoli, then in power Dargouth.
Unfortunately, it was not so: the weather, extreme agitation of the sea, forced the expedition leader to remain several weeks at anchor on the island. Dargouth cleverly took advantage of this respite to inform the Grand Lord of the dangers which threatened the Turkish possessions in Africa.

As the notice was pressing, the Divan of Constantinople soon sent one hundred and sixty galleys and ships carrying forty thousand soldiers, and ordered him to make all possible dispatch, to surprise the English fleet its anchorage on the island of Djerba. At the risk of breaking her masts, Sinan Pasha was covered with veils, and burst suddenly upon the compact mass of buildings MedinaCoeli, who had barely time to sail, to escape the inevitable destruction. The attack was so sudden that 19 galleys and 14 transports were removed before they could cut their moorings.

Notwithstanding this material loss, 5,000 Spaniards were thrown into prison. After this major disaster, the Duke of Medina Coeli brings together some of his ships and returned to Europe, leaving Don Alvaro de Sande care to defend the fortress island of Djerba, where he was locked up with a handful of soldiers.

After enduring for several weeks, the most cruel privations, the contingent decided to throw himself in despair over enemy lines, to drill and take advantage of the confusion and surprise that their attack would cause in the ranks to win the shore and rushed to seize the first buildings that fell into their hands. On the day they leave their fortified base on the Turkish army, and trying to emerge through the thick battalions. Turks rally, wrap the handful of Spaniards and shoot with rifle scimitar. To see
their victory and to remind future generations, the Turks had raised, Sir theater of their achievement, a pyramid made up entirely of skulls and bones of enemies that was removed in 1846 following the desire expressed by the Consul at Bey General of France and the Prefect Apostolic in Tunis. Left

definitely master of authority in Tunis, Hamed posted its sympathy for the Turks and his hatred against Christians. Curiously, the small band of English mercenaries who had been left by his father Charles V became his strongest support, the dedication of its leader Juan who had the manners and dress Muslims. This man was the real master in Tunis and all it had on a bloody tyranny.
Hamed also formed a body of three thousand horse called Zemasnïa, well armed and well mounted, he used mostly to fight Arab insurgents, particularly the Ouled Saïd, who have always been treated simply as infidels because of their multiple traitor to the monarchs of this country. The new king

Hafsid, Moulay Hamed, was also very difficult to win. He was regularly called to the Sultan of Constantinople, at the same time he signed truces, or treaties with the Spaniards. This versatility of power Hafsid, who sometimes relied on the Spaniards and now coming to terms with the Turks, was due to his weakness against two such powerful empires.

In March 1568, Euldj Ali was appointed Master of Algiers and just as the new Beylarbeg came to take possession of his job he decided to conquer the Kingdom of the Hafsids.

As its nickname implies, Euldj Ali was a renegade, a native of southern Italy. Taken very young by Muslims who had rowed a long time in the convict, stubbornly refusing to abandon his religion; he had received during this portion of its existence the nickname El-Farthing (the nasty or bald) by the Arabs and Uchaux Fartax (the scabby renegade) for Christians.
Euldj Ali desperate to get his freedom, he had ignored nor abjure Christianity, like many others at that time and took the name of Ali.
His energy and intelligence soon made him get the command of a ship and it became one of the top lieutenants of Hassan, son of Khaireddine and Dragut.

So because of the fragility of power Hafsid, the master of Algiers, Euldj Ali turned to Tunisia where there was, no glory, Moulay Hamed, who was in a state of hostility with the English La Goulette and war against his subjects, particularly the Ouled Saïd and Chabbïa.
The crusade against the Christian powers were preparing the Turk was known to all; the Beylarbeg knew he was destined to play a major role in the duel with the Mediterranean Sea would be the scene and he deemed it necessary that Tunis was in possession .

In October 1569, he marched eastward, the head of 5,000 regular musketeers, and took with him the way the quotas Kabyle, the goums of Amraoua Garfa and those of other tribes in the province of Constantine.
the announcement of his approach, Moulay Hamed was released from Tunis, but he had with him his spahis called Zemasnïa, numbering 3,000, 1.600 more nomadic Arabs. The encounter took place near Beja and the Turkish army triumphed without difficulty Tunisians who were pushed up Medjerda.
This river, being overwhelmed, the army stopped a moment to Euldj Ali, but he managed to cross it and, having put in the footsteps of Prince Hafsid, he inflicted a new defeat at Sidi Ali el-Hattab.

Moulay Hamed then returned to Tunis, but, considering all resistance useless, he gathered his family and what he could carry and went in the direction of Rades. From there he could cross the lake in a place where the water depth was less and take refuge in the English Fort Chekler. After recognizing him, they opened his door and gathered it. The English Governor Don Pedro de la Goulette Carrero took him under his protection

Euldj Ali was soon forthcoming, he went to Tunis without a fight, welcomed the submission of Zemasnia and actively strove to restore peace. After spent four months in his new conquest, he took the road to Algiers, leaving Tunis under the command of his boss, Ramdhane, with a thousand Turks, many Zouaoua and strengths of its predecessor (end 1569).

As Hamed, he went to Spain and s strove to justify to Philip II, his past conduct, begging him to provide a way to ascend the throne.

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19 Weeks Pregnant No Frequent Urination

78 - The Conquest of Tunis by the Turks (part 6)

.
A year later, Moulay Hassan arrived in Bizerte submit, and went himself to supervise the dismantling of its walls (end 1535).
In 1536, the situation was far to improve, if we judge by the instances of Moulay Hassan with the emperor, in order to obtain regular troops that would allow it to hunt the few Turks remained in the country and their supporters reduce to subjection the Chabbïa who ruled Kairouan and finally submit the cities dissenting.

If these reinforcements could be given him, the king of Tunis said that his position had become untenable and demanded to be taken to Spain. Mendoza (Captain of the fort of La Goulette), in turn, confided that he prayed for ships and 1,500 men with whom he undertook to take control of Mahdia.
He confirmed that the position of Moulay Hassan was impossible to Tunis.

In 1537, the city of Kairouan sprang a fanatic named Sidi Arfa leader of the Brotherhood "Chabbia", which claims to sovereignty were soon supported by a large party. His goal was not only to combat "the traitor" but to dethrone him, so to end the dynasty Hafsid but also to drive the English and Turkish-Ottoman.
Moulay Hassan appealed again to the support of Charles V and the Viceroy of Sicily, at the behest of the emperor sent men and cons Soussa vessels, to reduce to obedience. With this reinforcement, the king Hafsid marched by land to assist the landing. But this double operation ended with a pitiful failure.

Two years after that unfortunate expedition, and in 1539, Andrea Doria revenged himself with brilliance. Kélibia, Sousse, Monastir and Sfax, even, were relocated under the authority of Moulay Hassan and governors Hafsid there were placed. Monastir even received a English regiment in garrison.

Kairouan remained in a state of revolt and Moulay Hassan was eager to avenge the humiliations experienced by him in its walls. Around 1540, he took the English garrison of Monastir, and having his assistant contingent took up a position at Batn el Karn, near the holy city of Okba. There was hardly settled people of Kairouan, who had already worked its members, effected a great outlet during the night and surprised his camp. Abandoned by the Arabs, Moulay Hassan was forced to open a passage to the tip of his sword, and thanks to the courage of the English soldiers, managed to return to Tunis, leaving all his baggage in the hands of rebels.

Monastir, Sousse, Sfax and Kelibia threw themselves back into revolt and accepted the protection privateer Dargouth Pasha (Pasha Dragut) which was headquarters El Mahdia and whose boldness and success wore his fame to the walls of Tunis and made increasingly illusory authority of Moulay Hassan.
The following year, Doria reappeared before Monastir and reduced the square. Soussa drove the Turks and replaced it under the authority of Moulay Hassan.

In 1542, Moulay Hassan, acknowledging all that his situation was perilous and precarious, decided to go in person to ask, once again, the help of Christians. He decided to move to Italy, for, from there, bring his grievances to the emperor, then at Augsburg, but as he did not trust none of his coreligionists, he laid, starting his treasure and jewels in La Goulette and confided to the English governor, Don Francisco Tavares, moreover, he ordered a ship goods of all kinds were to sell it in Italy.

The party was serious because he was leaving his dominions, in a time when his authority was threatened by factions. However, he did not, and left in the hands of his son Moulay Hamed, business management.
But no sooner had he arrived in Europe, where, without losing time, he had already sent Arms and ammunition, he received the Commander Goulette most alarming news: his son Soltan Hamid, assisted by Sheikh Bab el-Jazeera, Omar el-Djebali, seized the authority and has been proclaimed king in his place and that his company had succeeded, despite strong opposition from the garrison of La Goulette, commanded by Don Francisco de Tobar.

Immediately Moulay Hassan urged his enlistment and was soon back at the head of about 2,000 adventurers recruited in the south of Italy, and commanded by the Neapolitan Lofredo. But his son was prepared for the resistance, thanks to the excitement of fanaticism irritated complaisance of Sultan for Christians and subordination that he had accepted he had collected a considerable force which had taken up positions in front of the city between Kherbet Kelekh and Saniat el- el-Annabi.

Immediately Moulay Hassan returned to Tunis to play power to his son. Upon arrival, the governor of La Goulette, enjoying better than him all the difficulties of the company, advised him not to tempt fortune with undisciplined troops and the loyalty of what he ought not count. This advice, dictated by prudence, was not listened.

Moulay Hassan walked bravely against the enemy, but soldiers did not hold and soon found themselves in disarray: 500 of them were collected by the Spaniards of La Goulette and all others, including their leader Lofredo, perished by the sword of Muslims. As
Moulay Hassan, he fell while fleeing in a quagmire from which it was removed with difficulty. Dressed in a bathrobe that concealed the mud which covered him, he was brought before his son.

After overwhelmed with reproaches, Hamed Soltan consulted his friends about the treatment that was to be inflicted and the result was to put forced to choose between life imprisonment or loss of vision. The unhappy prince opted for the latter party had his eyes gouged out by the order of his son, who then gave him some freedom, knowing so discredited that it was more dangerous. Later, the king managed to escape and sought refuge among the Christians. He then accused Don F. Tavares for having taken all his wealth, as the result of a curious statement preserved in the archives of Simancas.

the news of these events, 1500 men from the army of Naples and conducted by Don Alonzo de Bivas, arrived in La Goulette, to help the governor of that place to overthrow the usurper. They were not long, indeed, the hunt of the throne and replace him with his uncle, Moulay Abd el-Malek, a man worthy of all respect. Unfortunately, this prince died thirty-six days after his elevation and we had to make a new choice. They gave him succeeded by his son, Moulay Mohamed.

Moulay Hamed did not remain inactive during these troubled times. The civil war that tore the country beautifully served his ambition, and he took advantage to form a powerful party, with which he was fortunate enough to capture with the help of Monastir Dargouth. Emboldened by this success, he immediately marched to Tunis, from where the young Moulay Mohamed, surprised by the brisk, fled to La Goulette, seek refuge with the Spaniards, leaving the power his cousin.

Dragut (Darghout) the privateer, took advantage, in turn, these revolutions to return to his obedience the cities that Doria had removed in 1540. It was Mahdia Africa or the center of its operations, and extended his authority over the island of Djerba.

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How To Make The Globe Theatre Model

77 - The Conquest of Tunis by Turks (part 5)

Moulay Hassan was restored to the throne as a vassal and tributary of Spain. Charles V. kept to himself several maritime places, notably La Goulette he endowed a fortress, much of which already carved stones were recovered from Roman aqueducts, which they blew.

The Emperor went to freedom ten thousand Christian slaves (some historians say twenty thousand, Twenty five thousand) and he returned triumphantly to Naples a sip army loot and wealth.

August 6, 1545, Moulay Hassan and Charles had signed a covenant in which it was stipulated:
- The release without ransom, all the Christian slaves and guarantee their freedom of movement.
- The option for Europeans to carry on the business, moving to Tunis, to have their freedom of worship and build churches and to ring their bells. Only a judge appointed by the emperor could know the cause, try and punish offenders
Topics - The King of Tunis had refused to host the Moriscos of Granada, Valencia, Aragon and other places belonging to the emperor, and he had to evict them.
- A commitment not to promote the race, either by providing food and ammunition to the pirates, either collecting in the ports of the kingdom.

- The Refresher His Majesty the city of Africa (Mahdia)

- Reimbursement of shipping and paying an annual tribute of 12,000 gold crowns to support the maintenance of the garrison of the port and, if not call this short, the Captain General could withdraw the pensions of the kingdom.

- The perpetual grant to Spain of coral fishing in the waters of Tunis;
- In recognition of his vassalage to still the king of Tunis and its successors should also submit annually, a tax consisting 6 horses and 12 falcons, under penalty of 50,000 ducats the first time they would not do it, 100,000 the second and third time they would be deprived of the kingdom. Also
;
- The King of Tunis handed to the emperor and his successors the kingdoms English rights he had on the cities of Bone, Bizerte, and other maritime fortresses that Barbarossa had usurped in order to expel all privateers who were there.

- The King of Tunis yielded to the emperor and the kings of Castile La Goulette and lands a mile around, provided that the Spaniards of chairs do not prevent the people of Carthage to take water wells located near the Water Tower.

- The King of Tunis had to leave the Christians of La Goulette, appointed by the captain of the fort, to trade freely throughout the kingdom. The king would receive taxes on the purchase and sale of goods (alcabala), but if there was crime, only the captain of the fort had authority over them and could punish them.

- The King of Tunis and his vassals would make no covenant and would not sign any agreement with a Christian or Moorish prince who could harm the Emperor or his successors kings of Spain and vice versa. The Emperor and the King of Tunis commitment on their behalf and that of their successors to maintain links friendship and good neighborliness, mutual respect in the freedom of trade in each other at sea and on land. For his part

Moulay Hassan asked
- 4,000 muskets with powder;
- Some artillery pieces, those that have been taken in the fortress of La Goulette, with ammunition;
- Some galleys, which He has a great need, and it will arm.

As his Majesty will promise:
- That the new fortifications of La Goulette would not provide any impediment to trade, and that soldiers stationed in the fortress will not try to penetrate in the country. Whenever they want to come to Tunis, they must be provided with safe conduct of the king.
- For personal safety of Moulay Hassan will also be allowed to hold Rabatins temporarily stationed in the Kasbah.

Spain in exchange for these commitments, promised her protection against all comers.

After the capture of Tunis with Charles V and the restoration of the monarchy Hafsid, Moulay Hassan controlled only Tunis. And yet, unable to avoid the sack of the city by imperial troops, and has appealed to Christians to recover the throne he was hated by his subjects. The hinterland and all of southern Tunisia, which Kairouan, a bastion of Islam, escaped him.

This treaty, the Emperor left Tunis after being left in the Casbah a garrison of 200 men who were to remain at the disposal of Moulay Hassan, until the complete pacification of the country. He then went to La Goulette, Rades through, where he stopped to wait for all his cavalry and equipment of the army were re-embarked on board the fleet. This done, he went to his former camp at Carthage, where he remained until his departure.

Before putting to sea, the emperor ordered him immediately proceeded to construct a strong citadel in La Goulette. For this purpose, materials of all kinds were ordered in Sicily and, in defense of the square, it left a corps of 1000 men under the command of Don Bernardino de Mendoza. Regardless of this body, a naval unit of 12 galleys under the command of Anthony Doria, also had to park there.

The emperor, having embarked, commanded the English fleet to return to its home port, and he went himself, with the rest of its fleet, about Mahdia (Africa), he wanted to s 'seize, but the bad weather which forced to adjourn this expedition he returned, in turn, Sicily and landed at Trapani. He took advantage of his stay in this port to run on Mahdia 5.000 troops landing, but, again, the winds and the poor condition of the sea came to foil the plans of Charles V.

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Ideal Mucle Percentage

76 - The Conquest of Tunis by the Turks (part 4)

On the other side of the canal works were also undertaken. When everything was almost finished, a bridge over the canal linking the two parts of La Goulette, and assured communications between them.
To add to these resources, we used the batteries from some galleys ashore, and they spared to other vessels, wet in the lake itself, the way to open their fire on the enemy, whichever way he attack him the corner.

To defend these, 4,000 had Khaireddine Turkish Janissaries of 1,000 and 2,000 Tunisians. He gave the command over two of his lieutenants: Sinan, the Jew, and Ali, surnamed Caccia Diavolo, or Devil Hunt.
As for food for the nourishment of all these people, they were to be drawn from Tunis and service of boats constantly coming and going from La Goulette, provide for these essential needs.

After using the arms of the population, Barbarossa thought to use its passions. The Holy War was proclaimed. Imams preached everywhere hatred of the Christian name, and many officers scoured the countryside, to excite the fanatical zeal of the warm and indifferent. It was under these provisions that Barbarossa waited threatening forces of Charles V.

Preparations ordained in the various arsenals being completed, Charles V left Barcelona May 31, 1535, with its own division, and those provided by Flanders, Portugal and Genoa. They were reinforced in Cagliari, where the emperor arrived a few days later, Arms of Malta and Italy. All fleet sails were 400 including 90 galleys. The army comprised 26,500 men, including the following enumeration:

FLEET.
- Division of Spain, Genoa and Flanders: 54 galleys, 70 large ships, 54 brigs, under the command of Andrea Doria.
- Portugal Division: 27 ships under the command of Antonio de Saldanha.
- Division of Italy and Malta: 36 galleys, 28 large ships under the command of Alvaro Bazan. More
transport.

ARMY.

INFANTRY - Division English; veteran troops from Italy: 4,000 men, under the command of General Marquis de Guasto.
- Division English, new levies: 8,000 men, under the Duke of Alba.
- German Division: 7,000 men under the command of Maximilian Piedra Buena.
- Italian Division: 4,000 men under the command of the Prince of Salerno.
- Portuguese Division: 2,000 men, under the orders of Louis Infante of Portugal.


CAVALRY - Volunteers noble of all nations: 1,000 men under the command of the Marquis de Mondejar.
- English Cavalry: 500 men under the command of the Marquis de Mondejar.

Part of Cagliari, the fleet appeared on the bay of Tunis in the second half of June. They had before them the land or was Carthage, or St. Louis instead landed three centuries ago. The men of Charles V. could not see, an arid coast and desert, burned by the fire of a scorching sun, dotted with gigantic ruins, not connected by any link with the past, at best they knew that an army of Christians had descended on this once land to plant the cross they themselves would try to fix it!

It landed without resistance from the Arabs, and now they were busy preparing for the attack. After several hot business, or both sides were made losses serious enough, and the work of the seat being completed elsewhere, fire was opened on July 14, 1535 Halk el Oued, La Goulette, which the same day, fell into the hands of the Spaniards. Eighty-seven ships and three hundred guns fell into the hands of the victors.
The Turkish garrison evacuated it and retreated to Tunis, winning the city by the lake, not without losing a lot of people throughout the journey.

At the news of the landing of Charles V, Moulay Hassan was rushed to him enough not to be confused with that of 150 riders, instead of the numerous contingent he had undertaken to provide it. Nevertheless, the Emperor reassured him generously, and he again promised to restore his throne before long.

La Goulette making the order to stand on Tunis was given, and, on July 17, the army marched, along the right bank of the lake.
Barbarossa, at the head of 9,000 homes for old soldiers, came to meet the Emperor at a mile and a half from the town, the two armies were in attendance and came to blows, but the Tunisian troops, composed Turks and natives could not withstand the first shock of the Christians, and all were soon overthrown. At the same time that the action committed, almost in sight of the ramparts of the city, the Christian slaves broke the doors of their prison, and had mastered the Kasbah.

the top of its walls, they announced their success in the English army. This circumstance greatly affects the outcome of the company. Deprived of its main defense, Tunis was forced to capitulate.
During the night the Turks still encamped under the walls of the city, but the next Khaireddine that these successive failures had discouraged, withdrew with the remnants of his army in the interior, from where he reached Algiers leaving in the Casbah of its capital ephemeral treasures and women.

The Emperor was received upon his entrance into the city by different authorities, who came up outside the doors for him to offer keys. Despite this act of condescension respectful, Tunis was pillaged, and plundered it lasted three days and begot a bloodbath that left 70.000 dead!

According to various stories, sources, chronicles and historians "the looting would have been permitted for three days, but the booty was small, and frustrated troops had thus satisfied their revenge by massacring some of the inhabitants irrespective for sex or age. " According to historian
Abdulwahab Tunisia, Tunis at that time had 180,000 souls. The third was captured and the others fled in the vicinity of Zaghouan and the rest were massacred. The smell of corpses decomposed by heat incommodèrent the king was forced to leave Tunis July 27 to stay in Rades
addition to "carnage", "this heinous killing," these organs and rapine, "" the massacre " mosques were demolished and burned libraries. The desecration of the Great Mosque Zaytuna and rape of the tomb of the marabout Sidi Mahrez patron of the city of Tunis with strong emotions were evoked by various writers and historians, and was even interpreted as an act "barbaric."
Columnist Paolo Giovio who had accompanied the expeditionary described the despair of Moulay Hassan Arabic books before trampled by English troops.

also mention other names still bearing the imprint of this eventful history. Until today. One of the doors of Tunis still bears the name of "Bab el Falla" (Gate of the failed and puerta Huida) which recalls the flight of the inhabitants of Tunis after taking into Ressas and Djebel Djebel Zaghouan.

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How Much Are Stand Up Bathtub

feudal powers (Historical and Cultural Dictionary Queyras)

The power of the Dolphin is limited by the numerous local aristocracy. Vassal, she participated in the exercise of justice and partly controls the economy. It is therefore co-seigneurs. The nobles were divided into three "parere" means noble Arvieux, those of Molina, Challain Château-Queyras, the most powerful. This co-seigneur originates not the knights who had participated in the expulsion of the Saracens, as proposed by sloe-Broke, but soldiers who, with the Count's power, have framed the farmers who settled the upper valleys. It lasts until the early fourteenth century

The Dolphin seeks to strengthen his power. During investigations of the thirteenth s scribes draw up an inventory or "summa" of income that can be expected from each parish, and then they add up the income of each parish to assess income Queyras or "summa grossa. They strive to establish an average income, by eliminating the uncertainty of future harvests. Taxation is compounded in three ways: through research finicky existing rights, the increase of old charges, by the emergence of new demands.

Two cases illustrate this strengthening of central power. The Dauphin seizes property of a nobleman, who died without an heir Live, the steward of Vizille, who owned land and rights in the Queyras. It decays Auruce Obert, very powerful in the Val Chisone. It has a policy against even tougher local government, the Mistral (or Bayle). The nobility of the High Dauphiné is too poor to oppose him. The average income of a noble family of 3 books, one of A.. Bermond about 6 cents.

The impoverished aristocracy, she alienates her property or go into debt to cope with rising prices and population growth. Gradually, the nobles are absorbed by the world disappears commoner and nobility of the high valleys in the fifteenth century At the same time, emerges in peasant society is a wealthy minority and a new power: the rural community (or university), whose name is often cited in surveys of 1265. It keeps records, control of certain fees, manages the mills. S in the fourteenth, she obtained other credentials: she decides logging, collects revenues, participates in load balancing, acquires offices, etc..

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75 - The Conquest of Tunis by the Turks (part 3)

Moulay Hassan, after being chased by Barbarossa in his dominions, wandered for some time among the Arabs, he excited, revolution Khaireddine cons, making them a pompous display of all property that it would reward their services if they were able to ascend the throne.
There is nothing so light and so inconsistent that the Arab people; enemy domination, he is always ready to listen to him who flatters his love for independence, having nothing to lose and everything to gain in a revolution, he is always ready to take up arms in favor of the party who offers the most advantages. Moulay Hassan was not embarrassed to persuade several Arab Sheikhs, and they began to gather in the plains of Kairouan.

Khaireddine, learning their movements, contented himself with writing this words "Let anyone among you who recognize the dominion of our sovereign Lord and master the Sultan Suleiman, left earlier in the rebel army and come to meet under my banner, for those who would not benefit from this time mercy, and who persisted in their revolt, will be held to repent of their temerity. "

Meanwhile Khaireddine assembled his troops and made all his preparations to go dispel this army of Arabs, whose numbers increased daily. When, under the command of Moulay Hassan, the Arab came to present the fight, he put them on the field in disarray.
Being a good politician, Barbarossa, they even granted the pardon, he knew that it was very difficult to continue. So they sent letters of thanks, and when they were received, the main Sheikhs went with him to swear fealty to him. He therefore took

Kairouan and other towns of the province and settled around the collection of taxes. Finally he opened by 25,000 Christian slaves as contained then the channel Tunis La Goulette, and created a port where the fleet was perfectly sheltered. From that day, Tunisia is more than a Turkish province. Last


again defeated by the usurper of his kingdom, Moulay Hassan, fled to Constantine, where he finds refuge with the governor of the province.
In his exile he became friendly with a renegade Genoese appointed Ximéa, who wanted to take advantage of the situation, he advised him to approach the Emperor Charles V, to seek assistance and to offer, return of service, to declare himself a vassal of the empire. Moulay Hassan
commitment also to assist the operations of the imperial army, with a contingent of Arabs that it was hard to get on the Tunisian coast at the time of arrival of the Emperor .

He wrote the following letter "... Barbarossa, the wretched Turkish Rais, born to misfortune of Barbary, has possession of my statements, and one of the major reasons which have decided to persecute me, is the sincere commitment that I have always had for you; it is your honor, and it is in your interests, O great King! come to my rescue and I get the inheritance of my fathers.
forces you collect is more than enough to get back at Barbarossa, and put me on a throne I usurped qu'i1.
I still serve me sixty thousand men, with whom I shall besiege it by land, while you come to besiege the side of the sea
When the Kingdom of Tunis will be back in my obedience, I'll make a tribute, and I content myself with the title of your officer. "

Charles V had been deeply irritated by the happy hand of the Turks and when Moulay Hassan came to seek his assistance in regaining sovereignty and offer him in return for services rendered, to declare his vassal, the emperor eagerly accepted these openings and associations to conquer he would undertake the Order of Malta, the Holy See and Portugal.

Preparations were immediately begun in huge arsenals of Spain, Genoa, Naples and Sicily; ships and galleys were armed, and supplies of all kinds were kept ready, but that was some deep secret that surrounded the preparations, Barbarossa was notified. The first notice of danger, he asked for help in Constantinople, but the nobleman could not send him because of his military commitments in Asia.
Barbarossa was not discouraged, and resolved to defend himself with his own resources.

Having recognized that the city of Tunis was unable to resist the enemy if it managed to make a landing at La Goulette, he put all his attention on this point. By its orders for new work defense were added to those he had commissioned in the early days of conquest.
He himself conducted, and must use all the arms of Christian slaves. Leaving

anchorage of La Goulette twelve of his best galleys, it housed the rest of its fleet in the small channel that connects the lake to the sea, and as any fortified structure was no guarantee then that point forward, a real boulevard of the capital he erected, with the greatest possible speed, a thick wall, which had to cut the tongue of land that extends north-east of the canal in the direction of the ruins of Carthage, La Goulette to bring to the shelter an attack on that side.
time having failed to properly complete this great work he had to resort to an expedient to temporarily take a useful advantage: they took the oars, spars, all the wood that fell into his hands. They are planted in the ground, we reli them securely, and then thousands of sandbags by subjecting the foot perfectly. Basically, it spared the embrasures to establish a battery. A moat completed this first line of defense.

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Where Do Women Loike To Masterbate In Public

74 - The Conquest of Tunis by the Turks (part 2)

The fleet first presented to Bizerte, and received the warmest welcome, the people even offered to Admiral to join him to cooperate for the success of the company, but declined their proposal Barbarossa and hurried back to sea, confident that in all circumstances the success of a project still depends on how quickly they bring to the perform.

The day after his departure from Bizerte, Barbarossa cast anchor off La Goulette. Barbarossa's troops consist of 1,800 Janissaries, 6500 Greeks and 600 Turks and Albanians renegades, most Spaniards. As for the fleet, she was strong of 84 galleys, but six were returned to Constantinople, ten others were sent to Algiers, Bone and fifteen to fifteen Bizerte; first Barbarossa, eighteen have been disarmed, so that only twenty, with seven large vessels brought from the island of Djerba by Sinan, take the sea and cross in front of La Goulette.

Immediately, the rumor spread in Tunis that the Prince Rachid "the son of the Negress" was on board the squadron, and that the intention of the Ottoman Porte was to restore the throne of his father , criminally usurped by Moulay Hassan. This noise, skillfully propagated by agents of Barbarossa, soon assumed the consistency of a new official and produced a great effect on the minds of the population already tired of the existing government. She took up arms, rushed to the palace of Moulay Hassan, drove him out of town and sent on a deputation to Barbarossa, to offer its bid and ask him to invite Rachel to come and take possession of supreme power.
Moulay Hassan picked up all its treasures, and taking with him his wife, his children and his most trusty servants, he retired the side in the middle of Jarîd Arabs.

Barbarossa, pleased with the success of his trick, leads arrives August 16, 1534, in haste the 9,000 troops he had brought with him, drives them to Tunis, where he quickly crosses the suburbs and short seize the Kasbah, where he becomes stronger.

However, impatience won the townspeople, and they suspect this betrayal, stir, gather and loudly demanded their new sovereign.
Barbarossa decided, he announces to the city that The Blessed Hafs have ceased to reign, and that it is no longer with them, but the delegate of the Porte that they must obey, and which he represents.

Realizing that they were played, Tunisians secretly sent word that he could return Moulay Hassan, and all they would meet him to help hunt Turks.

August 18 1534 Barbarossa appeared early in the morning, before the gate of Al-Jazeera with 4.500 men at the same time, Moulay Hassan was coming in the opposite suburb, followed by 4,000 Arab horsemen. The Tunisians had taken up arms and tumultuously assembled, calling loudly for the king, but the Arabs would not support further Moulay Hassan, and stopped in the suburbs. The king entered alone in the city where the Turks had just entered through another door.
Throughout the day, they fought in the streets. First, people had the advantage. Many Turks were isolated massacred, and others driven into the citadel that Tunisians thronged from all sides. The next day, Barbarossa ordered a re-release: 1800 renegade Janissaries and rushed into the city, their muskets and Tunisians did wonders fled in disorder. Continuing their victory through the streets, the Turks entered the houses and killed all those inside: 3000 Tunisians, men, women and children perished in this sad day and 600 were injured as the Turks their losses are much below.

Finally, the people submitted themselves to Barbarossa and recognized him as king. During that this was happening in the city, outside Moulay Hassan, who joined the Arabs, was in great danger. Seeing that the Turks were the strongest, his savage auxiliaries wanted to deliver the Barbarossa, and it was not without difficulty that Moulay Hassan managed to escape.

deposed Sultan had more resources than among Arabs, and they, indeed, were very numerous and powerful. Khaireddine then tried to lure them to his party by appealing to their greed and avarice.
He wrote to the principal Sheikhs of Drid and Nememchas, sending them hooded, sheets and present, and that of them who could seize the Sultan El-Hafsi and bring him, would receive a reward of thirty thousand ducats, while on the contrary that would protect his escape, he would incur further outrage would suffer his vengeance.

The Arabs replied that the Sultans of the family of Beni Hafs were wont to give them every year since time immemorial subsidies agreed cash and food, and if Khaireddine wanted to undergo the same purposes, they would switch to its service .
Khaireddine, satisfied with this opening, they did say that he was willing to pay them royalties set for them, provided, however, they would not do no wrong in his subjects, and they make their camps on the edges of the Sahara or in the plains far from towns. Accordingly, he invited him to bring their records to take note of what he was up to each of them annually, and to ensure that they received and what could be their duty even for the current year, for the Arabs take great care to preserve the authentic documents which state their rights and privileges, and keep an accurate account of payments made to or by the government, at the times determined by usage.

Arab sheiks began to demonstrate their goodwill by withdrawing Djérid in and they sent their records to Khaireddine. The Pasha made the observation when they had nothing more to expect the government for the current year, and he assured them that next spring they would only stand to receive their Awayed (right and of the custom).
In addition, and to instill more confidence, he sent each of the Arab sheiks who had rights to the benefits of government, a teskere (ticket) sealed with his seal, and specifying the sum due to him, with the Order of payment. This generosity on his part favorably disposed the minds of Arabs and put them in his interests.

So this was a return to political power in its wake the Arab tribes (Drid and Nememchas) who still held in Moulay Hassan. Other tribes imitated their example, and also received generous gifts.

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73 - The Conquest of Tunis by the Turks (1st part)

We are in 1525, the dynasty of the Bani Hafs, whose foundation dates back to the year 1228 had provided for more than three centuries a long series of princes, under the government of which the kingdom of Tunis had counted number of states flourished in the Muslim world. This dynasty touched at the end of his prosperity, and its fall was even coming. However Mohamed Moulay still maintained dignity reputation of his ancestors, but we sensed that after him, no prince could bear, without wavering, the weight of such a glorious heritage

Moulay Mohamed had several children by his various wives. Because of the rivalry between mothers of princes, he was obliged to hold shut his eldest son Mamun, extremely vicious man to prevent him from committing parricide.
So he designated as his successor his son Moulay Hassan at the expense of his elder brother, thanks to the intrigues of his mother, ambitious woman, who cherished this purpose now.

So at his death in the year 1525, his youngest son, Moulay Hassan, was empowered, in violation of the right of his brothers. No sooner has he installed on the throne, that, thinking of getting rid of all competitors, Moulay Hassan ordered the assassination of his brothers. Two were sacrificed his jealous fears, the third Rashid, son of a black slave, escaped and took refuge near Abdallah, head of a powerful Arab tribe, whose daughter he married.

Moulay Hassan was not mistaken about the desertion of his brother, he predicted he would soon be attacked. But to minimize the ways he feared treachery around him, he hid his fears. Then one day he met at a banquet all his relatives: brothers, sisters, uncles, aunts, cousins, and all those who, near or far, had blood in his veins Royal Tunisian pretext of their to celebrate and strengthen their union.

At the end of the meal, when he had counted and that he was sure that not one was missing, he was grabbed, put out the eyes of all males, whatever their age and enclose all women in prisons guarded.

the news of this unprecedented cruelty, Rachid, brother fugitive, began to lead the army of his stepfather, and raises most of the tribes he can, but not thinking himself strong enough he sent to ask for help Khaireddine Barbarossa, who had acquired great power, perhaps unconsciously, by the founding of the regency of Algiers.

Khaireddine Barbarossa welcomed the outcast with marked, and soon learned the great benefit he could derive from this circumstance, to help achieve its proposed annexation of the territories from Tunis state that had already conquered, he persuaded the prince to go with him to Constantinople, or his name, his reputation and his credit he would easily obtain the means to support their just claims to the throne of Tunisia.

Rashid, full of confidence in these false assurances, followed Barbarossa to Constantinople. There, the wily pirate easily persuaded the Sultan Suleiman the conquest of Tunis would be easily achievable through the division of parties, and that would be enough to rally them and dominate them, ostensibly to take up the cause of the pretender.

On-the-field preparations for the expedition began, and some time later, a formidable fleet, under command Barbarossa himself, left the Bosporus and sailed to the coast of Africa. When she sailed, Rashid, who until then had kept complete faith in the promises of its two powerful patrons, found himself treacherously arrested by their orders, then thrown into a state prison, from where he was no longer out.

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You System Not Been Modified Itunes

Queyras population in the nineteenth century (Dictionary of Historical and Cultural Queyras)



in the delivery of the second quarter of 1908 of Bulletin of the Society for the Study of the Hautes-Alpes (Gap, 27th year Third Series, No. 26), Father Paul Guillaume, in an article entitled "Population changes of Hautes-Alpes in the nineteenth century , "Published in tables, counts five-year population by commune and district from 1796 to 1906, compiling the results of censuses taken place between two dates (every five years, except between 1806 and 1826, in 1817 and 1820) and are kept in the departmental archives of Gap. It adds to these official figures the two estimates from 1698 and 1790. The conclusion comes down to this observation:
"From reviewing the results of each count, it is easy to see as the population increases rapidly during the first half of the nineteenth century, at least until 1846 or 1851, but beginning this last time, the motion becomes retrograde and the population decreases to a considerable extent. "

What is true of the Hautes-Alpes is also the township of Needles (Queyras history), where the decay of the population starts rather than in the rest of the department. From Census 1836 (7577 inhabitants cons 7637 five years earlier), the Queyras is steadily losing its population. A careful examination of these figures by district, highlights the very special case shelter, which was the most populated municipality Queyras in the early nineteenth century and whose population has changed in significant proportions in several occasions, sometimes halving or by passing the double. In 1801, the town has 1815 inhabitants. But five years later, she has only 981 inhabitants. Nearly half the population of 1801 has disappeared between censuses. In 1817, the population has hardly increased compared to 1806 and is of 1071 inhabitants. Three years later, in 1820, the town found some residents near the level of 1801 demographics and Abriès is populated by 1803 inhabitants. These abrupt changes recurrence. In 1826, 1868 people are surveyed. Five years later, in 1831, they are more than 1051. But in 1836, the level reached a decade earlier is almost solved: 1829 inhabitants.
In 1846, depopulation began. A shelter, are recorded 1726 inhabitants. Five years later, they are more than 938 and in 1856 their number increased by almost 60% to 1528 people. These variations are apparent to the following censuses: in 1861, 856 inhabitants in 1866, 1202 inhabitants in 1871, 1204 inhabitants in 1876, 782 inhabitants. Then, the population decline is steady, smoothly, until the population fall in 1968 below 200.

Can we explain these erratic counts, and if so, how? Note that these abrupt changes do not find needles, except between 1886 and 1891, where the population rose from 558 to 407 inhabitants in 1896 to regain the level of 515 inhabitants, but this variation is explained by the fires that destroyed the village in 1889 and 1891. Counts of the population in other municipalities Queyras do not like variations, except Castle Old Town, whose population rose from 1128 to 991 inhabitants between 1796 and 1801, then from 991 to 1248 inhabitants between 1801 and 1806; and then from 1264 to 1876 to 1337 inhabitants between 1817 and 1826. Molines, Ristolas, Saint-Veran are down almost as regularly population, with occasional sudden variations, as in Saint-Veran, with a population estimated at 669 inhabitants in 1826 grew to 800 inhabitants in 1831 and 1836 , to 831 inhabitants.

Several hypotheses can be advanced to account for these variations. It is possible that surveys were not conducted in the same season. In this case, the sharp declines are due to the absence in the villages of seasonal migrants are brutal and ski straight to the date the census was conducted. These errors of enumeration, are always possible, are not the determining factor, since sudden changes mainly affect Abriès. We know that this county has suffered the highest rate of population decline between 1831 and 1960 and in 1968 she had lost 90% of its population of 1836. The extent of depopulation can be explained by overcrowding of the county, which was the seventeenth and eighteenth century most prosperous Queyras (see Harriet Rosenberg). Rather than seeking the causes of this phenomenon, it is better to accept it as it is and conclude at the very high population mobility shelter, which its farmers have long practiced transhumance reverse and maintained for centuries of relations with the inhabitants of the Piedmont valleys and were versed in subtleties of trading. It was enough of a bad harvest and a brutal evolution of markets for a portion of the population moves away from the village for some time and look elsewhere for revenue honorable.